Science on This Day: December 11 | Apollo 17, Robert Koch, and the Kyoto Protocol
December 11 offers three very different ways to explore the relationship between science and society. In 1972, astronauts landed in a lunar valley to investigate the Moon’s geology. In the nineteenth century, Robert Koch’s research helped establish how particular microorganisms cause infectious diseases. And in 1997, representatives from around the world adopted an agreement intended to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
These events connect space exploration, microbiology, climate science, and the decisions people make when scientific evidence points towards new possibilities or serious challenges. They also provide useful opportunities for students to consider how scientists gather evidence, test explanations, and apply what they learn.
If you enjoy bringing real scientific history into your lessons, the December Science on This Day resource set includes 132 events across the month. The set includes an interactive HTML version, editable slides with discussion questions, a spreadsheet, and a printable PDF, giving you several ways to use a daily event as a quick starter or a longer classroom discussion.
Apollo 17 lands on the Moon: 11 December 1972
On 11 December 1972, NASA’s Apollo 17 Lunar Module, Challenger, landed in the Taurus-Littrow valley on the Moon. Astronauts Eugene Cernan and Harrison “Jack” Schmitt were aboard the lander, while Ronald Evans remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module, America. Apollo 17 was the sixth and final Apollo mission to land astronauts on the Moon.
One feature made this mission particularly important for science. Schmitt was a trained geologist, and he became the first professional scientist to walk on the lunar surface. Previous Apollo crews had conducted important geological observations, but Apollo 17 placed a scientist with specialist geological training directly in the lunar environment. He could examine the landscape, select samples, and help interpret what the rocks and soil revealed about the Moon’s history.
The landing site had been selected because it offered a useful combination of geological features, including mountainous terrain and evidence of volcanic activity. During their stay, Cernan and Schmitt collected around 110 kilograms of lunar material, deployed scientific equipment, took photographs, and travelled using the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Their observations and samples helped researchers investigate how the Moon formed and changed over time.
One memorable discovery was orange-coloured soil. The unusual colour was not simply a surface stain. It was linked to tiny volcanic glass beads, evidence of ancient volcanic processes. Samples brought back to Earth could be examined using laboratory equipment that would never fit inside a lunar lander. This is an excellent example of how field observations and detailed laboratory analysis work together.
Apollo 17 also provides an opportunity to discuss the difference between exploration and scientific investigation. Reaching a new place is an achievement, but the scientific value comes from asking questions, choosing suitable measurements, recording observations, and interpreting evidence. A photograph of a lunar valley can tell us something about its shape, but rock samples and measurements can reveal much more about its history.
Bringing lunar geology into the classroom
Show students a photograph of the Taurus-Littrow landing site or images of the orange lunar soil. Ask them what they can observe directly and what they would need additional evidence to establish. They could then design a short investigation around the question: What evidence would help us determine whether a landscape was shaped by volcanic activity or impacts?
This works well as a discussion starter before studying rocks, the Solar System, or planetary geology. Students can also compare the evidence available to a scientist standing on the Moon with the evidence available to a scientist studying images and samples back on Earth.
For a related space topic, my Black Holes Strange But True facts and 2 Truths and a Lie activity offers another way to introduce space science through unusual claims that students need to assess.
Robert Koch is born: 11 December 1843
Robert Koch was born in Clausthal, in what is now Germany, on 11 December 1843. He became one of the key figures in the development of modern bacteriology, the study of bacteria. His work helped establish that particular microorganisms could cause particular infectious diseases, an idea that transformed medicine and public health.
During the nineteenth century, many people still disagreed about how infectious diseases arose and spread. Koch investigated anthrax, a disease affecting livestock and people. In 1876, he presented evidence that a specific bacterium caused the disease. He went on to identify the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis in 1882 and made important contributions to research on cholera. In 1905, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his investigations and discoveries relating to tuberculosis.
Koch’s achievements depended not only on identifying microorganisms but also on developing and applying methods that allowed scientists to study them more reliably. These included growing bacteria, staining samples so that they could be seen more clearly under a microscope, and carefully comparing observations. His research helped shape methods for connecting a suspected pathogen with a particular disease.
The principles associated with Koch’s postulates became an influential framework for testing whether a microorganism causes a disease. In simplified form, the approach asks researchers to look for a consistent association between a pathogen and an illness, isolate and study the suspected organism, and investigate whether it can reproduce the disease under suitable conditions. Modern microbiology recognises exceptions and limitations to the original postulates, but the broader lesson remains important: scientific explanations need evidence that connects a proposed cause with an observed effect.
Koch’s work also shows why improvements in scientific methods matter. A microscope alone cannot answer every question. Researchers need ways to prepare samples, distinguish different organisms, record results, and test whether an explanation fits the evidence. Advances in laboratory techniques helped turn microbiology into a more systematic science.
Discussing microbes, evidence, and disease
Ask students how scientists could investigate whether a particular microorganism causes an illness. Encourage them to think about what evidence would be needed, how they might compare samples, and why finding a microorganism in a sick person would not automatically prove that it caused the disease.
This can lead into discussions about controlled investigations, variables, infectious disease, and the development of germ theory. It also gives students an opportunity to consider how scientific knowledge changes when researchers develop better tools or discover evidence that challenges an earlier explanation.
For a low-preparation extension, students could create a simple timeline showing how research methods and discoveries contributed to modern microbiology. They could then explain why identifying a pathogen is useful but does not, by itself, guarantee that an effective treatment or prevention strategy will immediately be available.
The Kyoto Protocol is adopted: 11 December 1997
On 11 December 1997, delegates at the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The agreement established legally binding greenhouse gas emissions targets for participating industrialised countries and economies in transition. It entered into force on 16 February 2005, following a lengthy ratification process.
The protocol was an important step in international climate policy because greenhouse gases do not remain within national borders. Carbon dioxide released in one country contributes to global atmospheric concentrations, so reducing the risks associated with climate change requires decisions that extend beyond individual communities and governments.
Climate science and climate policy are related, but they are not the same thing. Scientists investigate how the climate system works, measure changes, analyse records, and use models to explore possible outcomes. Policymakers then have to consider how to respond, including which emissions to target, how responsibilities should be shared, and how the costs and benefits of different approaches might be distributed.
The Kyoto Protocol reflected the view that industrialised countries should take on specific emissions-reduction commitments, recognising their historical contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and their capacity to respond. Its design and implementation also revealed the difficulties of coordinating action across countries with different economic circumstances, priorities, and levels of responsibility.
The agreement did not solve climate change. Instead, it created an international framework for setting targets and reporting progress. It is useful to study because it illustrates the gap between recognising a scientific problem and organising a collective response. Scientific evidence can describe risks and possible consequences, but decisions about policies also involve economics, ethics, international relationships, and public priorities.
Connecting climate science with evidence and decision-making
Give students a graph of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations or global temperature trends and ask them to describe the pattern before discussing its possible causes. What does the evidence show directly? What additional evidence would help explain the trend? What uncertainties remain, and how should they be communicated?
Students could then compare a scientific question, such as how greenhouse gases affect Earth’s energy balance, with a policy question, such as how different countries should share the responsibility for reducing emissions. This distinction helps students understand that science can inform decisions without determining every political or ethical choice.
A useful follow-up is to ask students to evaluate a proposed climate action using evidence, expected benefits, possible costs, and limitations. They can practise supporting a conclusion with data while recognising that people may disagree about the best response even when they accept the same scientific findings.
More science history to explore in December
The rest of December offers plenty of opportunities to connect daily events with classroom topics. On 12 December, Guglielmo Marconi’s transatlantic radio signal provides a starting point for studying electromagnetic waves and communication technology. The same date also marks the launch of Uhuru in 1970, the first satellite dedicated to X-ray astronomy, which opens up a discussion about how scientists observe objects that cannot be studied using visible light alone.
On 13 December, students can revisit Apollo 17 as Cernan and Schmitt completed their final lunar surface excursion in 1972. This is a natural follow-up to the landing story, particularly for lessons on lunar exploration and geological evidence. On 14 December, Max Planck’s work on blackbody radiation offers a route into quantum physics, while the Mariner 2 Venus flyby in 1962 demonstrates how robotic spacecraft can collect information about another planet.
Later in the month, 15 December includes the Venera 7 probe’s transmission from the surface of Venus in 1970, a useful comparison with lunar exploration and the challenges of working in a planet’s extreme environment. Henri Becquerel, born on the same date in 1852, also provides a connection to radioactivity and the development of modern physics.
These events are only a small selection from the month. The December Science on This Day resource set gives you 132 events to choose from, with formats suited to different classroom routines. You might use one slide as a two-minute starter, select a few dates for a discussion, or browse the interactive version to find events that fit the topic you are teaching. The spreadsheet and printable PDF provide alternatives if you prefer to plan ahead or keep a simpler reference.
You can also explore the full Teaching Astrophysicist store for other science teaching materials, including free resources and activities that use unusual facts and claims to encourage students to question, discuss, and evaluate evidence.
Science history works particularly well when it is more than a list of names and dates. Apollo 17 shows how exploration can generate new evidence, Koch’s research illustrates the importance of testing explanations, and the Kyoto Protocol demonstrates how scientific understanding can inform decisions on a global scale. Each event gives students a different way to consider how science develops, how evidence is used, and why scientific work matters beyond the classroom.
Thanks for reading
Cheers and stay curious
Oliver - The Teaching Astrophysicist
