Science on This Day: November 25 | The Great Storm of 1703, Conservation of Energy and Einstein’s Gravity
November 25 brings together three stories that show how scientists build explanations from evidence. A devastating storm in 1703 provides a way to explore how we reconstruct past weather events. Julius Robert von Mayer helped develop the idea that heat and mechanical work are connected through the conservation of energy. And in 1915, Albert Einstein presented the final form of the field equations that became central to his general theory of relativity.
These events span Earth science, physics and astronomy, but they share a common theme: understanding something complex requires more than simply describing what we observe. Scientists need to collect evidence, look for patterns and develop explanations that can be tested against the world.
November 25, 1703: The Great Storm and reconstructing extreme weather
In late November 1703, a powerful storm struck southern Britain, causing extensive damage and loss of life. The Great Storm is often described as one of the most destructive storms in British recorded history. Accounts describe damaged buildings, uprooted trees, flooded areas and catastrophic losses at sea. The storm began on November 24 and continued into early December, so November 25 falls within the period of this major weather event.
The storm happened long before modern weather satellites, radar networks and computer forecast models existed. Scientists and historians therefore rely on a different kind of evidence to understand it: written accounts, records of damage, observations from ships, and other historical documents. The UK Met Office’s account of the Great Storm of 1703 provides a useful starting point for exploring the event.
Reconstructing a historical storm is not quite the same as forecasting tomorrow’s weather. Modern meteorologists can collect measurements from instruments and satellites, but historical researchers must interpret evidence created for other purposes. A ship’s log might record the direction of the wind or describe a vessel being driven ashore. A newspaper might report damage to buildings. Such accounts can reveal the storm’s impact, but they may not provide the precise measurements needed to calculate wind speeds with confidence.
This is an important distinction for students: evidence of severe damage is not the same as a direct measurement of wind speed. Scientists can use physical evidence and historical records to estimate what happened, but uncertainty remains, especially when observations are incomplete or inconsistent.
Bring this into the classroom
The Great Storm makes a useful introduction to evidence evaluation, extreme weather and the development of meteorology. Give students two or three short historical descriptions of the same storm and ask what each source tells them. Which details are directly observed? Which are estimates? What information is missing?
Students could create a table separating evidence about the storm’s effects from evidence about its physical characteristics. For example, a report of a damaged roof is evidence of impact, while an instrument reading would provide a more direct measurement of wind speed.
A discussion question to use as a starter is: How can scientists reconstruct the strength of a storm when they do not have modern weather measurements?
Older students could compare historical storm accounts with modern meteorological data and consider how the development of weather instruments has changed our ability to investigate extreme events. They could also explore why reliable warnings depend on both scientific understanding and effective communication.
This event provides a valuable opportunity to discuss uncertainty without treating it as a weakness. Scientific explanations are strongest when they distinguish what the evidence supports from what remains uncertain.
November 25, 1814: Julius Robert von Mayer and the conservation of energy
German physician and physicist Julius Robert von Mayer was born on November 25, 1814. He was one of the early scientists to recognise the importance of the relationship between heat and mechanical work, contributing to the development of the principle of conservation of energy.
Today, conservation of energy is one of the central ideas in physics. Energy can be transferred between objects and transformed from one form into another, but the total energy of a closed system remains constant. A moving object can transfer energy to its surroundings, electrical energy can become light and heat, and chemical energy can be transferred during a reaction.
Before the modern understanding of thermodynamics was established, scientists were working to explain how heat related to other physical processes. Mayer argued that heat and mechanical work should be understood as connected forms of energy rather than entirely separate phenomena. His ideas were part of the wider development of energy conservation during the nineteenth century, alongside work by other scientists, including James Prescott Joule and Hermann von Helmholtz.
The principle matters because it allows scientists to track energy through a system. When a ball falls, gravitational potential energy decreases while kinetic energy increases. When the ball hits the ground, some of its kinetic energy is transferred into sound, thermal energy and deformation. The energy has not simply disappeared, even if the ball no longer moves.
Students often learn the phrase “energy cannot be created or destroyed,” but the idea becomes more useful when they can identify where energy is transferred and how it changes form. In real systems, some energy is often transferred to the surroundings, making it less available for the task we wanted it to perform. This is why a machine can be less than 100% efficient without violating conservation of energy.
Bring this into the classroom
Von Mayer’s work is a natural connection to lessons on energy stores, transfers, efficiency, heating and thermodynamics. Students could investigate a bouncing ball, a swinging pendulum or a simple electrical circuit, identifying the energy stores involved and tracing transfers between them.
Ask students to explain what happens to the energy of a ball after it stops bouncing. Does the energy vanish, or has it been transferred to the surroundings? This question helps address a common misconception that energy is “used up” whenever a device stops working.
For older students, you could introduce the idea that heat and mechanical work are two ways energy can be transferred. A process involving friction, for example, can transfer mechanical energy into thermal energy, increasing the temperature of the materials involved.
A useful discussion question is: How does conservation of energy help us explain changes in different physical systems?
The historical angle also encourages students to recognise that major scientific principles were developed through the contributions of multiple researchers. Scientific knowledge is cumulative, and the modern formulation of a principle may emerge over time as experiments, measurements and theoretical explanations develop.
November 25, 1915: Einstein presents the final field equations of general relativity
On November 25, 1915, Albert Einstein presented the final form of the field equations of general relativity to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. These equations describe how matter and energy are related to the curvature of spacetime. They became the mathematical foundation of Einstein’s new theory of gravity, replacing Newton’s description in situations where a more precise account is needed.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation successfully explains many familiar situations, from falling objects to the orbits of planets. It remains an excellent approximation for everyday engineering and many calculations in astronomy. However, by the early twentieth century, physicists were seeking a theory of gravity that fitted more closely with the principles of relativity.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity describes gravity differently. Rather than treating it simply as a force acting between masses across space, the theory describes how matter and energy affect the geometry of spacetime, and how objects move through that geometry. A planet follows a path shaped by the spacetime around the Sun. The theory can explain subtle effects that Newton’s theory does not fully account for, including the unusual advance of Mercury’s closest point to the Sun, known as its perihelion precession.
The field equations are mathematically complex, but their broad message can be introduced without requiring students to solve them. They connect the distribution of matter and energy with the curvature of spacetime. The relationship is often summarised as matter and energy influencing spacetime’s geometry, which in turn influences motion.
Einstein did not arrive at the final equations in a single moment. He worked through a series of papers and revisions during November 1915. The November 25 paper marked a key milestone in that process. The Einstein Papers Project at Caltech explains the significance of the equations and their connection to the problem of Mercury’s orbit.
Bring this into the classroom
General relativity can seem far removed from the experiences of middle and high school students, but it offers a valuable way to discuss how scientific models change. Students already know that objects fall and that planets orbit stars. They can begin by comparing the kinds of questions Newton’s theory answers well with the situations in which Einstein’s theory provides a more accurate description.
A useful starter is to ask: How can a scientific theory remain useful even after a more complete theory has been developed?
Students can compare the strengths and limitations of models used in science. Newtonian gravity remains useful because it is mathematically manageable and accurate enough for many practical purposes. General relativity is essential when the effects of spacetime curvature become significant, such as in precise studies of planetary motion or near very massive objects.
A simple visual analogy involving a stretched sheet can help introduce the idea that mass affects geometry, but it should be presented with care. The sheet model uses ordinary gravity to demonstrate an effect attributed to gravity itself, and it cannot represent all the features of spacetime. This limitation makes it a useful discussion prompt: what does a model help us understand, and what does it leave out?
For older students, Einstein’s work can also lead to discussion of evidence. How do scientists test a theory that describes phenomena that cannot be directly observed in everyday life? They look for measurable consequences, compare predictions with observations and revise their explanations when necessary.
Using Science on This Day as a classroom activity
November 25 works well as a cross-disciplinary warm-up because the three stories use different kinds of evidence and explanation. The Great Storm invites students to evaluate historical records. Von Mayer’s work connects physical observations to a general principle about energy. Einstein’s field equations show how mathematical models can extend our understanding of gravity.
You could choose one event for a five-minute discussion, or use all three over several lessons to compare how scientific knowledge is developed. Ask students to identify the central question, the available evidence and the explanation that emerged. They might also consider what new evidence or technology would help scientists investigate the topic today.
My November Science on This Day activity set includes 109 STEM stories across November. The collection comes in several formats: an interactive HTML version, editable Google Slides, a filterable spreadsheet and a PDF version. Teachers can select events by date or subject and use the included discussion questions as lesson starters, retrieval prompts or short evidence-evaluation activities.
You can also browse the The Teaching Astrophysicist store for other free and paid science resources, including materials for physics, chemistry, biology, Earth science and space.
What else happened in science history?
November 26 offers several more connections to engineering and space science. Willis Carrier, born in 1876, helped develop practical air-conditioning systems that controlled humidity as well as temperature. This provides a link to heat transfer, phase changes and the role of humidity in buildings and industrial processes.
On November 26, 1922, Howard Carter and his team opened a view into the burial chamber of Tutankhamun’s tomb, following the discovery of the staircase earlier that month. While archaeology is not always classified as a natural science, it provides a useful opportunity to discuss how researchers gather evidence, document findings and distinguish observation from interpretation.
The same date also marks France’s 1965 launch of the Astérix satellite, an important milestone in the development of French space technology. In 2011, NASA launched the Curiosity rover mission to Mars, and in 2018 the InSight lander reached the Martian surface to investigate the planet’s interior and seismic activity. These missions show how engineering and scientific investigation work together to answer questions about other worlds.
As November ends, the December Science on This Day activity set offers 132 STEM stories across all 31 days of December, with the same range of classroom-friendly formats. It can help teachers continue using historical events to introduce curriculum topics, prompt discussion and make connections across science.
The stories of the Great Storm, von Mayer and Einstein show that scientific understanding can develop from many kinds of evidence: historical records of what happened, experiments that reveal relationships between physical processes, and mathematical theories that explain the behaviour of the universe. November 25 is a useful reminder that science involves not only finding answers, but also understanding how strongly the evidence supports them.
